The idea that structures, a lizard or a goldsmith’s shop, for example, are in principle not comparable, is so deeply rooted in human thinking that it can only – if at all – be shaken by a considerable number of arguments. It is equally difficult to shake the conviction anchored, so to speak, in the core of our self-estimation, that we represent a culmination and are God’s darlings.

Up to now we have been speaking of the "outer fronts" which all energons – in whatever form they present themselves to our senses – are confronted with, which they "have to deal with". They are the ones which primarily direct the energons’ evolutionary formation. Every energon, however, also has "inner fronts" which it has to deal with and which likewise impose vehicles of effect and burdens on it. Thus in the bodies of the higher animals, the vascular system can be understood neither as an adaptation to energy and material sources nor as an adaptation to disturbing or favourable environmental conditions. The reason which necessitates this functional unit, this expense, is to be found elsewhere: in the energons themselves. In enterprises, the same holds for the canteen, the accounting department, the repair department. These units also are not the direct and immediate results arising from the type of income sources or from other environmental conditions – rather, such functional units can be found with energons with highly different methods of acquisition and in highly different environmental situations. They are, so to speak, functional responses to problems occurring – secondarily – inside a large number of energons.

Already at this point it should be stressed that a clear dividing line between the expense which the outer fronts cause and that arising from the inner fronts cannot always be drawn. Because of double functions and extensions of function there are also multifarious overlaps. Functionally – and conceptually – the inner fronts are nevertheless clearly distinguishable and independent phenomena. With every measurable formulation of competitiveness, the values they supply have to be taken account of separately.
 
 

The first "inner front section" appears – according to conventional thinking – as extremely irrelevant and trivial, hardly worth considering or mentioning. In textbooks of zoology and botany it is hardly mentioned. It is, nevertheless, of far-reaching importance. If today our world is on the brink of possible self-destruction, its ultimate root is in this factor, which up to now has been largely ignored.

I call this factor "bonding". It is an internal requirement which has to be fulfilled in every energon. Every functional unit must somehow be bound to the energon to which it belongs. The general principle is: Whatever is not tied or bonded to an energon can only in special circumstances be a functional unit of that energon.

With plants and animals, from the outset no part exists by itself, everything firmly coalesces with the other parts. That leads us to believe that there is no problem here.

However, it is not at all self-evident that every cell sticks to the others – on the contrary, this is an effort which runs up costs. With animal cells, it is the tonofibrils which bond the cell walls to one another, with the vegetable cells this is effected by intermediate lamellae which consist of pectin. If one could calculate the total cost of these devices in the Metazoa, it surely would come to a considerable figure. In addition, there are connective tissues, ligaments and skins which hold the various organs together. With animals, the bones and the external loricae, with plants, the lignified stem and branch parts not only have a supporting function but also a binding function. Due to the fact that individual tissues and organs are chained to them, these are also more tightly connected. How strong in each individual case the tying devices have to be depends on the method of acquisition and the environmental conditions. The more strains a body has to put up with, the stronger must – necessarily – be the bonds preventing it from being torn apart.

In tissue cultures, heart cells, kidney cells or neurons can be kept alive in isolation. Consequently, they behave like independent protozoans idly moving around like amoebae. One may observe how they form ties, renounce their motility again and grow stiff in a tissue. This process shows up even more clearly with the myxamoebae. These protozoans first live fully independently and then unite into a metazoic body: into a fungus spore capsule which serves to propagate the species. Every such process presupposes bonds as a special feature of the cells concerned.

However, that a purely mechanical bond does not suffice is illustrated by cancer cells. They are still firmly connected with the body – in fact, however, they are not really parts of it, not really its functional units or vehicles of effect, any more. They behave like independent organisms, in much the same way as parasites invading the body. In addition to the mechanical bond there is thus – with all cell aggregates – another more complicated form of bonding. What ultimately constitutes the bond is the associated willingness to act¹. This can also be observed with energons established by human beings. The accounting clerk embezzling money, the traitor secretly working for the enemy may formally appear to be tightly bound with their associations. De facto, however, they are not their vehicles of effect.

Finally we have to be aware of the fact that not only all vehicles of effect must be tied to their energons – but that they themselves also consist of parts between which bonds are necessary. Also, inside a cell or an organelle (cell organ) not everything always remain in its proper place.

What fundamental types of bonding are there, what do they look like? This can be observed best with the artificial organs of humans. In this case the parts are manufactured separately and only then they are connected with one another. Also, we can precisely indicate the costs run up by the factor "bonding".
 
 

What the specific nature of the vehicles of effect functioning as bond s has to be, depends above all on the type of units to be tied to one another.

Textiles cannot be connected by a weld, ropes hardly by a screw, metal sheets never by a knot. The material, form and size of every tie thus depend on the material, form and size of the functional units that are to be tied to one another. Stones are bound by mortar, wooden parts by screws or glue, wires by clamps or solder. Likewise, the function of the units to be tied determines the necessary shape of the binders. Poles movable against one another, or bones, must be held together by means of elastic ligaments or springs. With funcitonal units which rotate or move in and out of one another, appropriate joints or bearings are necessary.

With professional entities, optional ties which can temporarily be dissolved play an important role. The functional unit par excellence for that purpose is the human hand. With its help we temporarily bind tools to ourselves, we operate machines by means of levers and switches. All tool handles and push-buttons but also handles and bolts on windows and doors are adaptations to this organ made available to us by nature. In extension of function it also performs a tying function.

An important question is how the artificial organs remain tied to their functional unit at the time when the human is not using them. As explained above (p. 49) "keeping things tidy" is a function serving that purpose. Only that which is actually available, is really tied to us. Accordingly, the central nervous system – more precisely: the brain and its sub-unit memory – exercise a function of tying as well.

To prevent parts getting lost via the action of predatory energons or disturbing environmental impacts is the responsibility of the front "defence" already discussed above. At this point, it should be pointed out that in many cases this function is realised through a strengthening of the tying vehicles of effect.

The sanctioning of ownership and property through the social organ of the state (i.e. the legal system) likewise protects the bonds existing between humans and their artificial organs. A law already enacted in 1790 BC by King Hammurabi in Babylon even goes one step further: "If a robber cannot be caught, the robbed person shall solemnly swear by God what he has lost. The town and the governor in whose area the robbery took place shall then compensate the person for the stolen property." The state here becomes – similarly to today's insurance companies – a social organ which in the case of a violently torn up bond establishes a new one with a functional unit exercising the same function.

This process is a new one in the history of evolution – apart from auxiliary measures of metazoic bodies for damaged tissues and cells – however, the inheritance of property sanctioned by the state constitutes even more significant progress. The germ cell, human being, thereby has the possibility to determine what should happen after its death to the artificial organs tied to it – to which other people or other energons they should be bound after its own decease. A fairly large part of civil legislation deals with questions of bonding. By means of special formalities bonds are established, protected – and transferred. Also every purchase constitutes a transference of a bond sanctioned by the state.

a) Simple tying of two units (A, B) by means of a binding functional unit (x). Examples: nail, glue, weld, contract. – Indirect tying through a third unit (C) to which the units to be tied are bound. Thereby they are tied to one another as well. Examples: tying of parts of the body to the spinal column, fixing of machines on a common basis, tying of the soldiers to the commander. – Within a spatial-temporal area, a sphere of tying is created which comprises the units to be bound. Examples: the cell components held together by the cell skin, parcels in a shopping bag, citizens within the state borders (in this case it is the constitution and laws which are creating a limited sphere of tying).

b) Simple co-ordination of the activities of two units (A and B) by means of a co-ordinated signal. Example: two workers co-ordinating their common activity through acoustic or visual signals. – Indirect co-ordination through a third unit (C) giving the units to be co-ordinated appropriate signals (x, y). Thereby their activity is co-ordinated. Example: the brain giving orders to different muscles, co-ordination of workers by a foreman, co-ordination of machine activities by means of a computer. – Within a spatial-temporal area, a sphere of co-ordination is created. Examples: the regulation of co-ordination by the genetic commanding points contained in every cell which is distributed over the body of a metazoan, co-ordination of persons by radio, co-ordination of sequences of operations by means of a printed co-ordination programme, co-ordination of domestic processes by laws which are published everywhere.

We have to be aware of the close relationship between spatial problems (tying) and temporal problems (co-ordination). In extension of function and function partnership, vehicles of effect related to tying can assume a function of co-ordinating as well, and vice versa. Examples: the wire connecting the receiver with the telephone set serves both for tying and for co-ordinating. The binding of the citizens to the territory of the state as well as, e.g. in the event of war, to the commanding points is effected, if necessary, by the police: thus by means of co-ordinated processes.
 

If a person lives completely alone, he can manage the bonding of his artificial organs by means of his hands and memory as well as by "keeping things tidy" and defence against forces of nature alone. In the vicinity of other people, however, he needs an additional functional unit for that function: the social organ "state".
 
 

Special problems of bonding arise, if human beings make other living beings their artificial organs.

Here we come across well-known phenomena: domestic animals are put in harness in order to attach them to a carriage. They are prevented from fleeing by stables and fences. They are fixed to a post by means of a rope. Guards keep watch over herds. In all cases these are vehicles of effect related to tying.

Similarly, guards watched over human slaves, too. In addition, almost every state authority protected its property – it protected the tying to the "master", it prevented an escape. When whole states were subjected, from which tribute was then extorted, the occupying forces saw to it that the bond was not destroyed, that is, they ensured the maintenance of willingness to act. The subjected state thus became a sort of milch cow, an acquisitive organ which had to be tied up by force.

In the military state, too, guards – army, political police – ensure the maintenance of the willingness of its citizens to act. At this point we are already getting very close to the problem area of cancer cells. Likewise in the body of metazoic organisms there need not only be an authority prescribing the functions of the individual parts but also guards which ensure maintenance of their willingness to function. The authority prescribing behaviour is known today: it is the genetic rule which is contained in every cell. About the guards and controls, however, much remains unknown. If we knew more about them, the phenomenon of cancer cells – which can shake off that bond – probably would already have been solved.

Much more interesting, however, than these violent bonds are others which can be observed in the development of animals. Here we are getting to the phenomena of the bonding of the young to their parents, of sexual attachment, of group cohesion. We are thus also getting to the phenomena of "love", "friendship" and "patriotism" which are so important to us².

The bonding of the young to their parents is only to be found with species with brood care: it is based on innate behavioural rules. In ducklings – experiments have proved – from the thirteenth to the sixteenth hour after their hatching, the "following response" is fixed³. If they see their mother during that time, they will continue to follow her, but if they see a person or a balloon instead, they will continue to follow – irreversibly – only persons or balloons. These animals thus have an innate instinct for "bond forming". With whom, however, the "bond " is formed, is decided by the sense impressions during a specific developmental phase.

Sexual bond forming – with species which brood living together in pairs – is based on innate behaviour, too. With grey geese, which form especially long and strong ties, it is effected by means of a special courtship ceremony⁴. The animals have then, as it is called in ethology, "fixated" on one another. They are tied to one another as if by an invisible rubber band.

Likewise there is much evidence today that with animal species which form groups, cohesion between individual animals is effected by means of innate reactions. Termites, rats, wolfs, chimpanzees fight for their respective community; they even sacrifice themselves for it.

There are important reasons to believe that also some forms of human "bond forming" are controlled by instincts. As everybody knows, the phenomenon of falling in love is not the result of our intelligence. Ethical ideals, too, are probably imprinted on us during puberty. Ideals which a child forms during that time substantially influence its later philosophy of life⁵. The reaction of patriotic enthusiasm which can be observed especially before outbreaks of war also seems – in much the same way as with some animal species – to be influenced by innate "mechanisms" in our central nervous system.

In addition, human beings have bonds effected by habits, common interests and the like.

Thus there are "bonds" which are created by innate or acquired behavioural reactions. Let us try to assess these according to the energon concept, too.
 
 

In the case of the bonding of the duckling with its mother – and similar types of bond forming – living beings are not yet fully developed at birth and therefore are dependent on breeding protection. For the respective period, their parents become their "protective organ": the protecting functional unit. For the young it is very important not to lose this organ, that is that the bond is maintained. This is ensured by means of instinctive processes. If the duckling loses its mother, it will cheep very audibly owing to an innate reaction. In the protective organ (that is, the mother) that will likewise cause the innate reaction of independently looking for the duckling – that is, for the energon to be protected. If the duckling runs after its mother, it hence follows its own protective organ.

Human bonds appear even stranger from this perspective: e.g. sexual attachment. It is important – regarding wage-earning – especially for the woman.

If the man is the only wage-earner, he is for the woman her acquisitive organ. Not to lose it is thus at the centre of her interests. This functional unit must somehow – unless another one can be found – remain tied up. More precisely: its willingness to act must not be lost. What means does a woman employ in order to achieve that?

Every women's magazine – and also novels, minutes of lawsuits, etc. – provides detailed accounts of partly drastic, partly very subtle methods applied to that end. These include: scenes, threats, cooking well, spoiling, rousing jealousy, showing understanding, waywardness and impenetrability, stirring up fear, a suicide attempt, etc. To some extent such behaviour stems from education and a woman’s own intelligence – it is thus acquired. A great deal, however, is instinctively employed – such controls of behaviour are thus a woman’s innate weapons. According to the energon theory, all rules responsible for that are functional units related to the bonding – namely the tying of an acquisitive organ to its energon.

The cultivation of pleasant feelings and thus also of our loves and friendships is largely part of the "area of luxury" (cultural area) and cannot be measured by economic standards. Where these behavioural reactions, however, play a functional role within professional entities, such an evaluation is nevertheless justified, and even appropriate. It is easier with the similar relationship between a pimp and a prostitute, which is less strained by emotions.

In this case the woman becomes the acquisitive organ of the man. How does he bond this functional unit to himself?

In practice we can see that both innate and acquired behavioural rules play a role. Frequently the pimp first makes his girl fall in love with him. Thus he creates a bond as firm as possible which is controlled by instincts. Then resistance to the work as prostitute is broken one way or another: by persuasion, threats, reward, affection, alcohol, beating. The willingness to function is created. Brute force then continues to remain an important binder. It is also possible that a prostitute joins a pimp of her own free will in order to be protected by him. All these different kinds of processes and the expense they cause come – in the respective energon – under the category "ties" regarding the balance as well. These are functions which are necessitated by this inner front section.

Another example of tying: that of a band of thieves to its chief or of a people to its dictator. In both cases it is human beings who make an appropriate number of others elements of their acquisitive structure and of their pursuit of power. These other persons somehow have to be bound to one another and to the leader, otherwise the entity falls apart and the robber chief and the dictator lose their acquisitive organs and power structure respectively.

Financial bonds – which will be discussed below – play an important role. In this case, too, innate or acquired behavioural rules are very important binders.

With the robber chief, it can be physical or intellectual superiority or charismatic leadership which help him obtain "unconditional loyalty". Similar qualities sare needed by the dictator. He certainly can bind many subordinates by force or through payment but a certain number must actually be loyal to him. The innate reaction to subordinate oneself to the stronger, the superior – which is also the case with animals forming herds – plays an important role. If the acquisitive entity is in danger of falling apart, the bonds loosen. Then there is a proven means to strengthen them: the common enemy, a common danger. This is also a form of behaviour found in animals: the "social defensive reaction". With humans, the enemy need not be real at all, it may be sufficient to conjure one up in one’s imagination. Since there have been human languages, there have been demagogues employing this trick. In this way, too, bonds can be reinforced (or established) by the activation of instincts.

Further means for the strengthening of loyalty – for the boosting of "patriotism" and "national sentiments" are ceremonies, national anthems, parades, honours. The effect of their "pathos" has a binding character just like the common language, customs, art, ideals and national successes. Especially strong religious bonds have also fairly often been used for the strengthening of the bond sof peoples to their monarchs.

A huge variety of phenomena hence produce the same functional effect: to bind functional units to their energons, to generate willingness to act.
 
 

With human acquisitive entities, especially with enterprises, money – more precisely: payment – became the main bonding agent. Of that, too, the preliminary stages are also to be seen in plants and animals.

In connection with the problem of tying, the relation cherry tree–bird presents itself as follows: Through the gift of the fruit the cherry tree temporarily makes the bird its functional unit. By a quantum of energy it binds that unit to itself for a short time. Neither the bird nor the cherry tree knows this. But de facto – concerning energy, as regards balance – the bird belongs to the plant's body of effect for a certain period of time.

Similarly the entrepreneur hires the services of his employees temporarily or "until notice". The hire charge – we speak of fee, salary, etc., but in fact it is a hire charge – "money" is in this case the universal instruction for human performance. Thereby money gains the function of a binding agent.

The basis of every hire of human labour is a contract – either oral or written. In the case of written or otherwise formally (e.g. in the presence of witnesses) concluded agreements, the guarantee of compliance is assumed by the state with the help of the coercive means of the legal system. In this case, money is the actual binder. The state becomes, in addition, the organ of safeguarding that the agreed willingness to act is maintained.

With all other fucntional units of a company (tools, machines, systems) money indirectly plays an important role as a binding agent, too. The state which is protecting property safeguards only that which was acquired through regular acts of barter – usually by means of money. Viewed in this light, every property and every hire charge is based – no matter whether it is an object or a person – on a contract⁶.

Even further means to reinforce such bonds effected by money and contracts are known to every economist. With the help of periods of notice, contract penalties, wage advances, loans or investment wages, enterprises try to prevent losing vehicles of effect. The human acquisitive structures are in this case in a much worse situation than the organisms in which every organ is necessarily congruous with the overall entity. Both with plants and animals, it is impossible for an organ to "switch over" to another organism. With the acquisitive entities human beings build up, which are not coalesced, this is, however, quite possible. Employees can be hired away, important vehicles of effect can (provided that the social will, i.e. laws , does not prevent it) in no time at all become agents of a competitor. The question of bonding is in that case even more critical.

At the beginning of industrial development, enterprises fairly often had a monopoly concerning the allocation of jobs. Therefore they could select the best workers, and could keep wages very low. The lack of alternative wage-earning possibilities locally thus became a guarantee for a strong bond. Today the boot is on the other foot. Most enterprises have to make great efforts in order to bind competent employees to themselves and to retain them.

The employees are wooed. One tries to bind them by a pleasant "organisation atmosphere". A good and inexpensive canteen is offered as well as clean and friendly working conditions, company leisure activities, constant exposure to background music, special offers, time off, care for the family, legal advice, old-age pension schemes and other benefits. As regards the energon, these expenses also have to be largely charged to the account of expenditure on "ties". In the same way as in every government budget, costs are contained which ultimately help the government to maintain the willingness of its citizens to act, today most enterprises also have to do substantially more than just guarantee their employees an income.

Galbraith distinguishes four motives which cause people to put their own interests last and to carry out disciplined work within the framework of a community. The first is fear of punishment, the second is aspiration to money. The third is called "identification" by Galbraith: the individual can get – apart from the acquisitive advantage – satisfaction out of becoming a functional unit, out of being taken up with a task. The fourth is called "adaptation" by him. In this case – this concerns especially managerial positions – the individual does not serve the organisation "because he values its objectives more highly than his own but because he hopes to be able to bring them more in line with his own targets in this way". Thus he makes the organisation the sphere of activity of his own will.

This subdivision, which is rooted in functional aspects, is justified. The first two forms of subjection are effected on the one hand by force, on the other hand by a gift of barter ("payment"). The two other motives already have their roots in the human aspiration to luxury. In cases three and four, work, in addition, becomes even a source of pleasure. With "identification" it is the social drive to become integrated into a community which is responding. From praise and recognition human beings gain positive feelings. With "adaptation" another mechanism is activated: the aggressive impulse, which is strongly developed within humans. It presses for the reaching of managerial positions and rewards likewise by giving the pleasure of exercising individual authority and displaying power.

The enterprise – like the state – thus has different possibilities to strengthen the bond screated by money and contracts, in addition, by gifts of pleasure. These additional expenses certainly debit the balance but by creating correspondingly stronger bonds they lead to an increase of competitiveness.

The severe reduction of "fair wages" – due to monopolies within the capitalist states – led to the countermovement of communism. According to the energon theory, the background presents itself as follows: power and privation were taken advantage of – that is, a "favourable environmental situation" – in order to spend less for ties than normally would be necessary.

Marx could not think of any better remedy than to condemn the entrepreneur's private ownership of the means of production. The worker, he explained, would have to take a share in the ownership of the operating resources himself. Thus – logically –forcible expropriation followed. The systems, machines, etc. – the artificial organs – came under the ownership of the state representing the interests of both sides of industry. It thereby became a gigantic commercial enterprise. What Marx did not realise – and that has put a strain on the communist countries to this day – was the functional significance of the entrepreneur and that of competitive struggle as a free instrument for maintaining performance.

By not allowing the tying of operating resources to individuals, the communist states prevented the forming of energons by force. Thus within the normal system of integration, a whole class was eradicated: private firms which in the industrialised countries are intermediate between the professional entities and the state. The factor of bonds is thus the real pivot for the "ideological" gap that divides our world into two big political blocs.

In the communist state, enterprises become organs – functional units. As a consequence of this, however, the state has to provide for them and control them – a very considerable additional charge on the balance. Furthermore, the stimuli thus emerging from the natural acquisitive urge and the free regulation of selection of the more competent through competitive struggle are lost. In the meantime, it has become clear that the solution suggested by Marx was neither the only possible one nor the best. The exploitation of "advantageous environmental situations" for inexpensive bonds is similarly achieved today by the workers' representatives (trade unions, state control) – at less expense to the national economy.

Undoubtedly, much progress can be accelerated more strongly and more rapidly by a violent central government than in free-enterprise democracies. But by prohibiting the bond swhich we call "private ownership of the means of production" an essential force which is important for every national economy is suppressed. If the natural pursuit of profit is prevented, the individual has largely to derive satisfaction just from "identification" and "adaptations" – as defined by Galbraith. With some people this may be successful; with a great many, however, it does not succeed. Of all human stimuli the one for the individual forming of energons – on which the second stage of the evolution is based – is thus largely declared a public enemy.
 
 

That is, however, only a rough outline of the phenomena and problems of bonding. There are many more.

For instance, as regards competitive value there is an important relation between the size of the energon and the costs of the necessary ties. In industry, it was observed that the function of tying became more difficult with increasing organisational size – i.e. that the associated costs grew disproportionately. The more subordinates, the bigger the necessary control apparatus to hold them together⁷. Similar connections also play a role with animal and vegetable entities.

Frequently the costs of tying are reduced by double function, extension of function and utilisation of outside energy. In that case, the units are carrying out this function are seemingly under the command of completely different functions or do not appear in the balance at all.

An example of a double function is the skull capsule of humans and other vertebrates, which is generally assumed to protect the vital brain against disturbances and threats. This is doubtless its function but the function of tying is in this case no less important. As the brain cells have to be in especially close contact with one another due to their function and the necessary strong bonding of these units may not be possible in any other way, the capsule firmly enclosing it is technically the only possible means to prevent the brain from being torn apart – for instance, even in case of quick body movements.

An example for the use of outside energy for the function of bonding is the utilisation of the force of gravity on our planet by almost every human acquisitive structure. Many of our devices are locally stationary due to their "dead weight" so that they need not be specially fixed there. That seems to be a matter of course but in fact it is not – which today astronauts are well aware of. In space there is no "weight" and associated ground friction providing a counterbalance. What is not fixed, can easily start wandering off when pushed.

The creation or strengthening of bonds within animal and human communities due to the appearance of enemies is as "unintended" as that due to the force of gravity. For the enemy – e.g. the robber – the effect he causes is even extremely unfavourable to him. The fact is, however, that he causes it. And the politician who today – as throughout history – conjures up an imagined threat in the minds of others, utilises outside action in the same way as everybody who relies on the "dead weight" of an entity to keep it in place.

Regarding the energy balance, all expenses which are caused by the function of bonding can be subsumed under a common category since they are influence the inner framework of values in much the same way. That the costs and precision of these effects are also in this case important criteria surely requires no proof. However, the criterion of speed loses some of its significance. Only with the optional bonds of artificial organs, does speed – possibly – become important for the competitive value.

The critic may argue at this point that especially with the factor "bonding" the practical impossibility of calculating the competitive value is evident. He may say: if phenomena such as instincts, habits, friendship, etc. are involved, concrete measurement cannot be possible. That is true in the isolated case but it does not hold on a large scale.

It is similar to the inorganic area. The thermal movement (Brownian motion?) of an individual atom is not determinable – but for a huge number of atoms a fairly exact statistical value can be calculated. In enterprises, the same can be observed. For example, it is perfectly possible to assess the value of a better canteen, better care of employees, friendly business relations empirically. To ourselves, our reactions and feelings may seem to be free and variable. Over longer periods, however, they become a fairly precisely definable quantity.

All functional units related to bonding are evolutionarily controlled as well, in fact there is a double control. How strong the bonds between two functional units have to be always depends upon the total environmental impacts. More precisely: it depends upon the environmental impact whereby the energon is exposed to the greatest strain. With trees this might take the form of storms or weight of snow, with animals it is frequently the way in which they captures prey or the attacking method of their enemies. With enterprises it is in many cases the effectiveness of their competitors. Form, size and material, however, depend on the units to be bonded together. These thus cause secondary effects. If, for instance, in different enterprises the same function is carried out here by a person and there by a machine, we may see how diverse the appropriate binding agents are.

Both outer and inner controls are effected by means of natural or intelligence-controlled selection. If bonds are too weak, the type will not be able to assert itself. If they are too strong or too expensive, this will involve superfluous expenditure which – in the competitive struggle – likewise may harm the species or sooner or later may lead to its demise.

The second "inner front" is in some ways similar to the one discussed above. Whereas every tying has to do with the holding together of material, that is spatial units, the next factor deals with combining sequences of motion, that is with temporal processes.
 
 

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Continue to "The origin of the I"
 
 

Comments:

¹ “A legal relationship between an individual person and his/her limbs or organs is unthinkable”, wrote Otto von Gierke. (“Das Wesen der menschlichen Verbände”, 1902, p. 30.) In fact, however, the genetic blueprint contained in the cells establishes a “constitution” which is absolutely comparable with human legal systems. It does not exist between the “human being” and his organs but between the carriers of action which together make up what we call “human being”. In the same way as Kelsen saw the legal system (“a system of standards”) as being that which constitutes the state, the “legal system” hereditary rule is also what constitutes the individual body of an animal or vegetable organism.
² An interesting overview on forms of bond  forming occurring with animals and the question to what extent human bond sare based on similar or equal mechanisms is given by I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt in his informative book “Liebe und Haß – Zur Naturgeschichte elementarer Verhaltensweisen”, Munich 1970.
³ E. H. Hess“Imprinting an Effect of Early Experience”. “Science” 130, 1959, pp. 133-141.
⁴ Details are given by Konrad Lorenz in his book worth reading “Das sogenannte Böse”, Vienna 1966.
⁵ Details on human compulsive behaviour will be given in part 4, chapter II.
⁶ That is also how Sombart saw the connections. He wrote, “Within the framework of the capitalist undertaking,  every technical problem must be able to be solved in the form of the conclusion of a contract to the advantageous draft of which every thought and wish of the capitalist entrepreneur is directed”. (“Der moderne Kapitalismus”, Munich 1921, p. 321.)
⁷ M. Haire, “Modern Organization Theory”, New York 1959, p. 302.